[MARINE_BIOLOGY_INTERNATIONAL] Atlantic Sea Turtle Population Threatened by Egg Infection

 

Washington, DC — An international team of mycologists and ecologists studying Atlantic sea turtles at Cape Verde have discovered that the species is under threat from a fungal infection which targets eggs. The research, published in FEMS Microbiology Letters, reveals how the fungus Fusarium solani may have played a key role in the 30-year decline in turtle numbers.

"In the past 30 years we have witnessed an abrupt decline in the number of nesting beaches of sea turtles worldwide," said Drs. Javier Diéguez-Uribeondo and Adolfo Marco from Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas- CSIC Spain. "While many of the reasons for this are related to the human impact of the costal environment it has been suspected that the decline is also due to pathogenic microorganisms."

Fusarium solani is a complex fungal strain which represents over 45 phylogenetic and biological species. The fungus is distributed through soil and can cause serious plant diseases. The fungus is known to have infected at least 111 plant species spanning 87 genera and has also been shown to cause disease in other animals with immunodeficiency.

During embryonic development turtle eggs spend long periods covered by sand under conditions of high humidity and warm temperatures, which are known to favor the growth of soil-born fungi.

Dr Diéguez-Uribeondo's team focused their study on the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) population on Boavista Island, Cape Verde, off the West African coast. While Boavista Island represents one of the most important nesting regions for this species a high hatching failure rate is driving population numbers down.

The team sampled egg shells with early and severe symptoms of infection, as well as diseased embryos from sea turtle nests located in Ervatao, Joao Barrosa and Curral Velho beaches and discovered 25 isolates of F. solani associated with egg mass mortalities.

Although this fungal species has been previously described in association with different infections in animals, its relationship to hatching failure had not been investigated before this study.

The finding that strains of F. solani may act as a primary pathogen in loggerhead sea turtles represents an extremely high risk to the conservation of loggerhead sea turtles across the area.

However, the description of these particular fungal strains causing this infection may help in developing conservation programs based on artificial incubation and may aid the development of preventative methods in the field to reduce or totally erase the presence of F. solani in turtle nests.

"This work reveals that a strain of F. solani is responsible for the symptoms observed on turtle nesting beaches," concluded Dr Diéguez-Uribeondo. "This shows that the infection represents a serious risk for the survival of this endangered species, while also showing immunologists and conservationists where to focus their research."

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[MARINE_BIOLOGY_INTERNATIONAL] Relocated Poached Nest Successfully Hatches

 

RESEARCH NEWS
Relocated Poached Nest Successfully Hatches


On August 27th, the Juno Beach Police department apprehended a man who was fleeing the beach with a bag full of sea turtle eggs. The man had taken eggs from a female green turtle as she was nesting just north of Seminole Golf Course. The police were able to save the eggs and hand them over to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.

After several hours of being processed as evidence, FWC gave the eggs to the research department at the Loggerhead Marinelife Center to rebury on the beach. Despite slim odds, we are happy to report that these eggs hatched on October 19th! 24 hatchlings emerged out of 110 eggs. Originally destined to be sold illegally at local bars, the LMC is happy to have been able to recover these eggs and get these 24 turtles back to the sea.

Loggerhead Marinelife Center

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[MARINE_BIOLOGY_INTERNATIONAL] World's Largest, Most Complex Marine Virus

 

Is Major Player in Ocean Ecosystems

Vancouver, BC — University of British Columbia researchers have identified the world's largest marine virus--an unusually complex 'mimi-like virus' that infects an ecologically important and widespread planktonic predator.

Cafeteria roenbergensis virus has a genome larger than those found in some cellular organisms, and boasts genetic complexity that blurs the distinction between "non-living" and "living" entities.

"Virus are classically thought of small, simple organisms in terms of the number of genes they carry," says UBC professor Curtis Suttle, an expert in marine microbiology and environmental virology and lead author of the study.

"Much of the genetic machinery we found in this virus you would only expect to find in living, cellular organisms, including many genes required to produce DNA, RNA, proteins and sugars."

The findings are reported in this week's issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Viruses cannot replicate outside of living host cells and they depend on proteins provided by the cell, a boundary that is often used to delineate "non-living" from "living" organisms. Giant viruses challenge this definition, as they still need a cell to replicate, but encode in their own genome most of the proteins required for replication.

Discovered in Texas coastal waters in the early 1990s, Curtis and his team where able to determine that the pathogen's genome contains approximately 730,000 base pairs. That makes Cafeteria roenbergensis virus the largest known marine virus, and the second largest known virus, after the fresh water-borne Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus, which weighs in at 1.2 million base pairs.

Cafeteria roenbergensis virus also infects a major marine zooplankter which occupies a key position in marine food webs.

"Even though predation by these marine plankton grazers is a major pathway of carbon transfer and nutrient recycling in marine and freshwater systems, we know next to nothing about the role viruses play in this system," notes Curtis, cross appointed to the departments of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Botany, and Microbiology and Immunology.

"There's little doubt that this virus is just one representative from a major group of largely unknown but ecologically important marine giant viruses."

Also on the research team were UBC graduate student Matthias Fischer, Michael Allen of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, United Kingdom, and William Wilson of the Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, United States.

Funding for the research was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Tula Foundation through the UBC Centre for Microbial Diversity and Evolution.

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[MARINE_BIOLOGY_INTERNATIONAL] LARGEMOUTH BASS VIRUS - USA: (VIRGINIA)

 

LARGEMOUTH BASS VIRUS - USA: (VIRGINIA)
***************************************
A ProMED-mail post
<http://www.promedmail.org>
ProMED-mail is a program of the
International Society for Infectious Disease <http://www.isid.org>

Date: 29 Oct 2010
Source: Richmond Times Dispatch (Virgina) <http://www2.timesdispatch.com/sports/sport/2010/oct/29/andy29-ar-614309/>

Officials looking into Briery Creek die-off
-------------------------------------------
The reports from readers came in around late June 2010: Fish are dying in Briery Creek Lake. "Have you heard anything about this?" was a common theme of their e-mails.

Word spread fast and theories were tossed about -- not surprising considering the lake's status as Virginia's premier impoundment for lunker bass. Now we know what likely was behind the die-offs: a combination of intense heat and, more ominously, a disease known as largemouth bass virus (LMBV).

According to a press release from the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (DGIF), largemouth bass virus is a disease that impacts several fish species but appears to cause death only in largemouth bass. LMBV was 1st discovered in Florida in 1991, and then spread throughout the southern United States and was responsible for a number of fish kills in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

"The virus is the kind of thing that may be lurking all the time,"
said DGIF fisheries biologist Dan Michaelson, "but when you have an environmental stress like the hot temperatures . . . [the fish] just become more susceptible when they're stressed." Michaelson emphasized that the number of deaths in Briery wasn't huge, and the fishing hasn't suffered noticeably, but, he added, there's no way to tell if it will in the future. Given the lake's popularity, he said, "It's something we're going to keep a very close eye on."

The hope in Prince Edward County is that Briery Creek Lake escapes the fate currently befalling Kerr Reservoir (Buggs Island Lake) to the south. LMBV also has been found there and in much greater numbers, leading to a significant decline in the fishery.

"We actually were approached by anglers last winter saying they were starting to see a decline," Michaelson said. "And the way they described it -- not catching as many 3-4 pound fish, taking longer to catch those fish -- it immediately sounded to us like some sort of a disease." The biologists working the case didn't know it was LMBV at 1st, but they immediately began sampling and testing, looking at growth and mortality rates as well as surveying local anglers. From the last time the department sampled Buggs Island Lake in 2004 to this year, he said, "mortality went way up. It was about a 10 percent increase in mortality. And growth declined a little bit."

A total of 41 percent of sampled fish tested positive for the virus, and unlike at Briery so far, they're dying in numbers big enough to impact the fishing, especially for larger bass.

"It's definitely harder on larger fish," Michaelson said. "There's not as many big fish for one thing, so if 40 percent of the population has it, that's 40 percent of a lot fewer fish when you're talking about big fish."

As with many viruses fish can acquire, not much is known about LMBV.
Michaelson said they're not sure how it arrived in Virginia from points much farther south, and right now there's nothing that can be done about it. In places such as Alabama and Texas, it was "about a 3-year cycle where they saw declines and then it improved real rapidly. Hopefully, at Buggs Island, it'll be the same thing."

But he tempered that hopeful thought with this one: "We don't have growth rates like they do in Texas. It may take a little longer to recover than what they saw down there."

Fewer fish and longer waits for dwindling lunkers is the new normal at Kerr Reservoir. At Briery Creek Lake and elsewhere, the fishing holds, but no one knows why or if it will last.

[Byline: Andy Thompson]

--
Communicated by:
Thomas James Allen
<tjallen@pipeline.com>

[LMBV is in the family Iridoviridae. There are 4 genus level groups in the Iridoviridae family, _Iridovirus_, _Chloriridovirus_, _Ranavirus_, and _Lymphocystisvirus_. It is not known what genus this specific virus belongs to.

The virus was 1st discovered in Florida but its true origin remains unknown. However the disease has been diagnosed in Texas, Virginia, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Vermont, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, South Carolina, North Carolina, Wisconsin, Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, Louisiana and Georgia, in addition to Florida.

Fish that are carriers of the virus may not appear visibly ill. The virus kills largemouth bass, but may not kill other fish that it infects. The disease has been found in guppies, bluegill, crappies, sunfish and smallmouth bass. Some largemouth bass may carry the disease and do well until a stressor effects them. Some stressors include water temperatures above normal, or temperatures above normal for long periods of time, overcrowding, pollution, poor nutrition, other infections and frequent handling by anglers.

The virus can be transmitted through the water, by contact with infected fish, and consumption of prey that may be infected.

Sadly, much remains to learn about this disease, especially how to prevent it or control it.

Portions of this comment were extracted from:
<http://www.in.gov/dnr/files/LMBV.pdf> - Mod.TG]

[The interactive HealthMap/ProMED map for Virginia is available at:
<http://healthmap.org/r/00tK> - CopyEd.EJP]

[see also:
2007
----
Largemouth bass virus - USA (KS) 20070812.2623
2004
----
Largemouth bass virus - USA (WV) 20040403.0915
2003
----
Largemouth bass virus - USA (MI) 20030502.1097 Largemouth bass virus - USA (Louisiana) 20030106.0049
2002
----
Largemouth bass virus - USA (Virginia) 20020614.4494 2000
----
Largemouth bass virus - USA (Texas) 20000705.1117] ....................tg/ejp/dk

*##########################################################*
************************************************************
ProMED-mail makes every effort to verify the reports that are posted, but the accuracy and completeness of the
information, and of any statements or opinions based
thereon, are not guaranteed. The reader assumes all risks in
using information posted or archived by ProMED-mail. ISID
and its associated service providers shall not be held responsible for errors or omissions or held liable for any damages incurred as a result of use or reliance upon posted or archived material.

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[rael-science] Miniature livers 'grown in lab'

 


~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Raelian Movement
for those who are not afraid of the future : http://www.rael.org
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Source:  http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11654943


Miniature livers 'grown in lab'


Scientists have managed to produce a small-scale version of a human liver in the laboratory using stem cells.

The success increases hope that new transplant livers could be manufactured, although experts say that this is still many years away.

The team from Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center presented its findings at at conference in Boston.

UK experts said it was an "exciting development" but it is not yet certain a fully-functioning liver is possible.

The demand for transplant livers far exceeds the number of available organs, and in recent years, research has focused on ways to use cell technology to support failing organs in the body, or even one day replace them.

Their building block is the stem cell, a "master cell" which can, in certain conditions, divide to produce different types of body tissue.

However, constructing a three-dimensional organ from stem cells is a difficult task.

'Technical hurdles'

The method used by the Wake Forest researchers, and other teams around the world, is to form new liver tissue on a scaffold made from the structure of an existing liver.

In this case, a detergent was used to strip away the cells from the liver, leaving only the collagen framework which supported them, and a network of tiny blood vessels.

Start Quote

Whilst 'off the shelf' new livers are clearly still a long way off, this work gives a glimmer of hope that this is no longer just the stuff of science fiction”

Dr Mark Wright,Southampton University

The new stem cells - in this case, immature liver cells and endothelial cells, to produce a new lining for the blood vessels - were gradually introduced.

After a week in a "bioreactor", which nurtured the cells with a mixture of nutrients and oxygen, the scientists saw widespread cell growth within the structure, and even signs of some normal functions in the tiny organ.

Professor Shay Soker, who led the research, said: "We are excited about the possibilities this research represents, but must stress that we're at an early stage, and many technical hurdles must be overcome before it could benefit patients.

"Not only must we learn how to grow billions of liver cells at one time in order to engineer livers large enough for patients, we must determine whether these organs are safe to use."

UK researchers welcomed the findings, which are being presented to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Professor Mark Thursz, from Imperial College London, said the results were "encouraging".

"The report suggests that the authors have overcome one of the major hurdles in creating an artificial liver - to generate functioning human liver cells in a 'natural' liver structure.

"It is clear that the cells are growing well, but the next step is to show that they are functioning like normal human liver tissue."

Dr Mark Wright, from Southampton University added: "In an era of increasing liver disease and death with a chronic shortage of liver transplants this represents an exciting development in an important field of work.

"The researchers appear to have made the step of combining stem cell technology with bioengineering as a first step to producing artificial livers.

"Whilst 'off the shelf' new livers are clearly still a long way off, this work gives a glimmer of hope that this is no longer just the stuff of science fiction."




~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

WARNING FROM RAEL: For those who don't use their intelligence at its full capacity, the label "selected by RAEL" on some articles does not mean that I agree with their content or support it. "Selected by RAEL" means that I believe it is important for the people of this planet to know about what people think or do, even when what they think or do is completely stupid and against our philosophy. When I selected articles in the past about stupid Christian fundamentalists in America praying for rain, I am sure no Rael-Science reader was stupid enough to believe that I was supporting praying to change the weather. So, when I select articles which are in favor of drugs, anti-semitic, anti-Jewish, racist, revisionist, or inciting hatred against any group or religion, or any other stupid article, it does not mean that I support them. It just means that it is important for all human beings to know about them. Common sense, which is usually very good among our readers, is good enough to understand that. When, like in the recent articles on drug decriminalization, it is necessary to make it clearer, I add a comment, which in this case was very clear: I support decriminalizing all drugs, as it is stupid to throw depressed and sad people (as only depressed and sad people use drugs) in prison and ruin their life with a criminal record. That does not mean that there is any change to the Message which says clearly that we must not use any drug except for medical purposes. The same applies to the freedom of expression which must be absolute. That does not mean again of course that I agree with anti-Jews, antisemites, racists of any kind or anti-Raelians. But by knowing your enemies or the enemies of your values, you are better equipped to fight them. With love and respect of course, and with the wonderful sentence of the French philosopher Voltaire in mind: "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it".

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"Ethics"  is simply a last-gasp attempt by deist conservatives and
orthodox dogmatics to keep humanity in ignorance and obscurantism,
through the well tried fermentation of fear, the fear of science and
new technologies.

There is nothing glorious about what our ancestors call history, 
it is simply a succession of mistakes, intolerances and violations.

On the contrary, let us embrace Science and the new technologies
unfettered, for it is these which will liberate mankind from the
myth of god, and free us from our age old fears, from disease,
death and the sweat of labour.

                                    Rael
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[rael-science] Prosecutors doubt Vatican money-laundering pledges

 


~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Raelian Movement
for those who are not afraid of the future : http://www.rael.org
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Source:  http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20101030/ap_on_bi_ge/eu_vatican_bank_scandal;_ylt%3DAqTxr2ZGevdWq23FsYq7ILGs0NUE;_ylu%3DX3oDMTFlNzZpN2psBHBvcwM5OARzZWMDYWNjb3JkaW9uX2J1c2luZXNzBHNsawNwcm9zZWN1dG9yc2Q


Prosecutors doubt Vatican money-laundering pledges


VATICAN CITY – The Vatican bank has taken steps to satisfy tough EU and international norms on money laundering and terror financing after being confronted with an unprecedented crackdown by Italian prosecutors, The Associated Press has learned.

In recent weeks the bank has made written and in-person pledges to pass anti-money laundering legislation, report and investigate suspicious transactions, identify customers to law enforcement and create a special compliance authority.

Prosecutors, though, aren't buying any of it. They claim that even as the bank was making such overtures, it broke the law by trying to transfer money without identifying the sender or recipient, or what the money was being used for.

Italian prosecutors have placed bank chairman Ettore Gotti Tedeschi and his deputy Paolo Cipriani under investigation and financial police seized euro23 million (US$30 million) from a Vatican bank account on Sept. 21.

The Vatican has reacted furiously, insisting that the omission of data was just a "misunderstanding" that could be easily clarified. It tried to get the seizure lifted, but the court refused.

Now the Vatican has finally given its commitments to some of the key institutions involved in the fight against money laundering, officials at the institutions told the AP.

Vatican bank officials in recent weeks made a written commitment to the Financial Action Task Force — the Paris-based policymaking body that develops anti-money laundering and anti-terror financing legislation — to do whatever is necessary to come into compliance with its norms, a senior FATF official familiar with the negotiations told The Associated Press on Friday.

The FATF requires the Vatican to pass legislation making money-laundering a crime; to establish an entity to report suspicious transactions and then investigate them; and to pass legislation requiring that the bank identify its customers properly and make that information available to law enforcement agencies, the official said.

Separately, on Oct. 15, Vatican bank officials met with European Commission officials and agreed that Pope Benedict XVI would act to bring into Vatican law EU directives on money laundering that are required of euro-zone countries, said Amadeu Altafaj i Tardio, spokesman for European Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs Olli Rehn.

The bank, formally known as the Institute for Religious Works, also pledged to establish a compliance "authority" headed by a senior Vatican cardinal on Jan. 1 to implement the anti-money laundering legislation, he said. The authority will be the contact for all EU and international agencies working to fight money-laundering.

Vatican bank officials also had two meetings starting in the spring of this year with officials from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development to learn how to get on the "white list," of countries that share tax information to crack down on tax havens, said Jeffrey Owens, head of tax issues at the OECD.

To join the OECD's club, the Vatican must first make a formal commitment to transparency and exchange of financial information and then take part in peer review sessions. To get on the "white list" the Vatican must enter into tax information sharing agreements with at least 12 other countries — a process that can often take years.

"The next stage is: They know what the standards are. Do they want to advance the dialogue with the aim of committing to the standards?" Owens said.

Despite such efforts — which predate the seizure of the Vatican account — prosecutors have said the Vatican has done nothing concrete to comply with Italian law, to which it is subject, much less international norms to fight money laundering. In an October court document, prosecutors said such compliance "doesn't even seem possible" given the lack of internal norms at the Vatican.

Citing an Oct. 6, 2010, Bank of Italy memorandum, prosecutors said the Vatican bank's consultations had been "completely fruitless," according to Corriere della Sera.

Gotti Tedeschi has insisted his efforts are sincere and has said he is mortified by the scandal. He has continued speaking publicly about the need for ethics in finance and has continued his promotion of the pope's encyclical on the global financial crisis.

At the same time, the bank is gearing up for another possible assault by Holocaust survivors who claim that Nazi loot was stored at the Vatican. A U.S. federal appeals court threw their case out in March after determining the Vatican bank enjoyed immunity since the Holy See is a foreign sovereign.

Attorney Jonathan Levy has since taken his case to the European Commission, asking for an investigation into whether looted Nazi gold had been used in Vatican euros and commemorative coins.

"The issue here is that it's the EU's problem because they entered into an agreement with the Vatican to mint euros," Levy said. "From our point of view, it's the EU's responsibility to hold the Vatican responsible to meet money laundering standards."




~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

WARNING FROM RAEL: For those who don't use their intelligence at its full capacity, the label "selected by RAEL" on some articles does not mean that I agree with their content or support it. "Selected by RAEL" means that I believe it is important for the people of this planet to know about what people think or do, even when what they think or do is completely stupid and against our philosophy. When I selected articles in the past about stupid Christian fundamentalists in America praying for rain, I am sure no Rael-Science reader was stupid enough to believe that I was supporting praying to change the weather. So, when I select articles which are in favor of drugs, anti-semitic, anti-Jewish, racist, revisionist, or inciting hatred against any group or religion, or any other stupid article, it does not mean that I support them. It just means that it is important for all human beings to know about them. Common sense, which is usually very good among our readers, is good enough to understand that. When, like in the recent articles on drug decriminalization, it is necessary to make it clearer, I add a comment, which in this case was very clear: I support decriminalizing all drugs, as it is stupid to throw depressed and sad people (as only depressed and sad people use drugs) in prison and ruin their life with a criminal record. That does not mean that there is any change to the Message which says clearly that we must not use any drug except for medical purposes. The same applies to the freedom of expression which must be absolute. That does not mean again of course that I agree with anti-Jews, antisemites, racists of any kind or anti-Raelians. But by knowing your enemies or the enemies of your values, you are better equipped to fight them. With love and respect of course, and with the wonderful sentence of the French philosopher Voltaire in mind: "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it".

__._,_.___
Recent Activity:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
"Ethics"  is simply a last-gasp attempt by deist conservatives and
orthodox dogmatics to keep humanity in ignorance and obscurantism,
through the well tried fermentation of fear, the fear of science and
new technologies.

There is nothing glorious about what our ancestors call history, 
it is simply a succession of mistakes, intolerances and violations.

On the contrary, let us embrace Science and the new technologies
unfettered, for it is these which will liberate mankind from the
myth of god, and free us from our age old fears, from disease,
death and the sweat of labour.

                                    Rael
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Tell your friends who love scientific news that they can
subscribe to this list !!

They can do it by sending a blank email to:
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[MARINE_BIOLOGY_INTERNATIONAL] Tagged Narwhals Track Warming Near Greenland

 

Nuuk, GREENLAND — In a research paper published online October 27 in the Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans, a publication of the American Geological Union (AGU), scientists reported the southern Baffin Bay off West Greenland has continued warming since wintertime ocean temperatures were last effectively measured there in the early 2000s.

Temperatures in the study were collected by narwhals, medium-sized toothed Arctic whales, during NOAA-sponsored missions in 2006 and 2007. The animals were tagged with sensors that recorded ocean depths and temperatures during feeding dives from the surface pack ice to the seafloor, going as deep as 1,773 meters, or more than a mile.

Scientists have had limited opportunities to measure ocean temperatures in Baffin Bay during winter months because of dense ice and harsh conditions. Cost is also a factor -- it requires millions of dollars to mount a conventional expedition using an ice-breaking vessel and other specialized equipment and people. As a result, for the past decade, researchers used climatology data consisting of long-term historical average observations rather than direct ocean temperature measurements for winter temperatures in the area.

The published study reported that highest winter ocean temperature measurements in 2006 and 2007 from both narwhals and additional sensors deployed using helicopters ranged between 4 and 4.6 degrees Celsius (39.2 and 40.3 degrees Fahrenheit). The study also found that temperatures were on average nearly a degree Celsius warmer than climatology data. Whale-collected temperatures also demonstrated the thickness of the winter surface isothermal layer, a layer of constant temperature, to be 50 to 80 meters less than that reported in the climatology data.

"Narwhals proved to be highly efficient and cost-effective 'biological oceanographers,' providing wintertime data to fill gaps in our understanding of this important ocean area," said Kristin Laidre from the Polar Science Center in the University of Washington's Applied Physics Laboratory. "Their natural behavior makes them ideal for obtaining ocean temperatures during repetitive deep vertical dives. This mission was a 'proof-of-concept' that narwhal-obtained data can be used to make large-scale hydrographic surveys in Baffin Bay and to extend the coverage of a historical database into the poorly sampled winter season."

Greenland's coast is a gateway for fresh water from melting polar ice flowing south to the Labrador Shelf, ultimately reaching the North Atlantic Current. The Arctic flow's effect on the current is critical for understanding the impacts of a changing Arctic on the transference of heat globally from the equator to higher latitudes.

Laidre was lead scientist on the NOAA-sponsored missions and is lead author of the paper. "Continued warming will likely have pronounced effects on the species and ecosystem in Baffin Bay and may eventually affect sea ice coverage in the region, which in recent years has already retreated significantly," she said. "The timing of the break-up of spring sea ice is ecologically important for many marine species and is linked to primary production that forms the base of the food chain."

NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration and Research funded the missions in 2006 and 2007 to tag and track narwhals as they made a fall migration from northwest Greenland to their wintering grounds in Baffin Bay. During that time and in an earlier mission, 14 adult narwhals were tagged with sensors to record date and time, ocean temperature and depth information. The data were automatically sent to a satellite when the narwhals surfaced for air between cracks in the sea ice. Tagging was carried out in accordance with the University of Washington's Animal Care Guidelines and a permit issued by the Government of Greenland. Each sensor tag provided up to seven months of data before falling off the animal.

Laidre worked in Baffin Bay with colleagues and co-authors Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen from the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources in Nuuk, Greenland, and Wendy Ermold and Michael Steele also from the Polar Science Center, University of Washington.

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